Experts have designed these Class 8 SST Notes Chapter 2 Reshaping India’s Political Map Class 8 Notes for effective learning.
Class 8 Reshaping India’s Political Map Notes
Class 8 SST Chapter 2 Reshaping India’s Political Map Notes
Class 8 SST Chapter 2 Notes – Reshaping India’s Political Map Notes Class 8
→ The Delhi Sultanate established centralized rule in North India with a strong military and administrative structure, including the iqta system where nobles collected taxes for the Sultan.
→ The Sultan was aided by ministers overseeing finance, military, and public affairs; however, revenue collection was often harsh, especially on peasants.
→ Over time, inefficiency, internal conflicts, and invasions led to the decline of the Sultanate, paving the way for the rise of regional powers like the Vijayanagara Empire and later the Mughals.
→ The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-mid-1600s) emerged in South India as a powerful Hindu kingdom, known for its efficient administration, temple architecture, and resistance to northern invasions.
→ Babur founded the Mughal Empire in 1526 after defeating the Delhi Sultanate at Panipat; he introduced Central Asian military tactics and laid the foundation for imperial rule.
→ Humayun, Babur’s son, lost and regained the empire with Persian assistance, laying the groundwork for a more Persianized court culture.
→ Akbar expanded the empire greatly through military conquests and diplomacy, promoted religious tolerance, and developed an efficient administrative system with ministries and the mansabdari system.
→ Akbar’s finance minister Todar Mai implemented land surveys and crop-based taxation, increasing state revenue and administrative efficiency.
→ Jahangir and Shah Jahan maintained the empire’s stability and continued Akbar’s policies, with Shah Jahan commissioning architectural marvels like the Taj Mahal.
→ Aurangzeb reversed many of Akbar’s tolerant policies, imposed stricter Islamic laws, and expanded the empire to its largest extent, but constant warfare and rebellions weakened the empire.
→ Religious persecution under Aurangzeb led to growing resistance, including from the Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajputs.
→ The Sikh community, originally a spiritual movement founded by Guru Nanak, took up arms under Guru Hargobind and later Guru Gobind Singh in response to Mughal persecution.
→ Guru Arjan was executed by Jahangir, and Guru Tegh Bahadur was publicly beheaded by Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam.
→ Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, a martial brotherhood committed to justice, which laid the foundation for future Sikh military resistance.
→ Mughal administration under Akbar was well-structured, with clearly defined departments and provincial governance through subahs and jagirdars.
→ The mansabdari system allowed the empire to maintain a flexible military without a standing army, relying on mansabdars to supply troops.
→ Village level self-governance remained intact despite imperial rule, preserving local institutions.
→ India’s economy during the medieval period remained agrarian-based, with thriving artisanal production and extensive inland and overseas trade networks.
→ Textiles, shipbuilding, and metallurgy were prominent industries, with exports far exceeding imports.
→ Merchant communities like the Marwaris used the hundi credit system to safely conduct trade across regions.
→ Peasants often bore the brunt of taxation and were vulnerable to famine, debt, and bonded labor, especially in the late Mughal period.
→ Social and economic disparities persisted, with wealth concentrated among rulers, nobles, and merchant elites.
→ Despite political instability and frequent warfare, India remained culturally vibrant, economically prosperous, and resilient through shifting empires.
→ Sultanate : A kingdom or region ruled by a Muslim ruler called a Sultan.
→ Iqta system : A system where land was given to nobles in return for collecting taxes and providing soldiers.
→ Mansabdari system : A system under the Mughals where officers were ranked and had to “keep a set number of soldiers and animals.
→ Jagirdar: A person who was given land (jagir) by the king in return for services, especially military.
→ Rana : A royal title used by Rajput rulers or kings in parts of India.
→ Diwan : The minister in charge of finance and taxes in the Mughal administration.
→ Mir Bakhshi : The Mughal officer in charge of the military and giving salaries to soldiers.
→ Khan-i-Saman : The officer responsible for royal household goods, trade, and agriculture.
→ Sadr : The official responsible for religious, justice, and education matters.
→ Hundi system : An old system used by traders to send money across places without carrying coins.
→ Sufi : A Muslim saint or spiritual teacher known for simple living and devotion to God.
→ Infidel : A term used in the past for someone who did not follow a particular religion. For example, Christians called Muslims or non-Christians infidels, and Muslims used it for non-Muslims like Hindus or Christians.
→ Khalsa : A special group of Sikhs formed by Guru Gobind Singh to fight injustice.
→ Turkic : Related to the people, languages, and cultures from Central Asia, including places like Turkey and parts of Russia.
→ Guilds (Shrenis) : Groups of workers or traders in the same profession who helped and protected each other.
→ Persian wheel : A simple machine used to lift water from wells to irrigate farms.
→ Copper plate grants : Old land records or legal papers written on metal sheets, like today’s property documents.
→ Iconoclasm : The belief in removing or destroying religious pictures or statues, thinking they are wrong or disrespectful.
→ 1192 : Battle of Tarain: Muhammad Ghori defeats Prithviraj Chauhan, starting Muslim rule in North India.
→ 1206 : Beginning of the Delhi Sultanate: Qutub-ud-din Aibak becomes the first Sultan of Delhi.
→ 1290-1320: Khilji Dynasty: Ala-ud-din Khilji expands the empire and introduces market reforms.
→ 1320-141: Tughlaq Dynasty: Known for ambitious but often failed projects like moving the capital (by Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
→ 1336: Foundation of Vijayanagara Empire by Harihara and Bukka in South India.
→ 1398: Invasion of Timur: Weakens the Delhi Sultanate.
→ 1451-1526: Lodi Dynasty: Last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
→ 1526 : First Battle of Panipat: Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi; begins the Mughal Empire.
→ 1530-1540 & 1555-1556: Humayun’s rule: Faces challenges, loses the empire to Sher Shah Suri, later regains it.
→ 1556 : Second Battle of Panipat: Akbar regains control of North India.
→ 1556-1605 : Reign of Akbar: Expansion, religious tolerance, administrative reforms (mansabdari system, revenue system by Todar Mai).
→ 1605-1627 : Reign of Jahangir: Known for justice and support for art.
→ 1628-1658 : Reign of Shah Jahan: Golden age of Mughal architecture (Taj Mahal built in 1632-1653).
→ 1675: Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur under Aurangzeb for standing against religious persecution.
→ 1699 : Guru Gobind Singh forms the Khalsa. a martial Sikh brotherhood.
→ 1707 : Death of Aurangzeb: Signals the decline of the Mughal Empire.
→ 1710s-1790s : Rise of the Sikhs as a military and political power in Punjab.
→ 1740s-1850s : Decline of Mughals and rise of regional powers like Marathas, Sikhs, and Nawabs of Bengal and Awadh.
Reshaping India’s Political Map Class 8 Notes
In this chapter, we will learn about the medieval period in Indian history, from the 11th to the 17th centuries. It was a time of many changesnew kingdoms, cultures, ideas and movements shaped India in unique ways.
Understanding the Medieval Period
- The word ‘medieval’ means ‘between two ages’. It was first used for European history, from around the 5th century CE (after the fall of the Roman Empire) to the Renaissance (14th-16th centuries).
- The Renaissance was a time when people in Europe rediscovered old Greek and Roman art and literature, and started thinking in new ways.
Invasions and Changes in India
- Invasions and changes in India began when people from beyond the Hindu Kush mountains entered the subcontinent, leading to significant shifts in its political landscape.
- India had many wars before, but during this time, many invaders came from outside the country.
- Most of these invaders were from Central Asia, like the Turkic and Afghan. They came to India not only for its wealth and land but also to spread their religions.
Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate
Beginning of the Delhi Sultanate
- The beginning of the Delhi Sultanate started after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in the year 1192.
- The Sultanate was ruled by five foreign dynasties of Turkic-Afghan origin: the Mamluks (Slave dynasty),
- Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis.
- The Delhi Sultanate controlled certain parts of Northern India, but some regional kingdoms, such as the
- Eastern Gangas in the East and the Hoysalas in the South, opposed its authority.
- The city of Delhi became an important political centre in Northern India during this time.
Political Instability and Wars
- The Delhi Sultanate period was marked by political instability and continuous wars for territorial expansion.
- This led to many military campaigns, where villages and cities were attacked, temples were destroyed, and places of learning were plundered.
- Many sultans became rulers by killing their predecessors. Because of this, the average rule of a sultan lasted less than nine years.
- In the early 14th century, Ala-ud-din Khilji expanded his rule across North and central India and repelled
- Mongol invasions. His general Malik Kafur led Southern campaigns, attacking kingdoms and Hindu centres like Srirangam and Madurai. The wealth gained by these funded the Sultanate’s strong military.
Delhi Sultanate During Muhammad bin Tughlaq Rule
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq greatly expanded the territories of the Delhi Sultanate. For the first time since the
- Mauryan Empire, most of the Indian subcontinent came under a single ruler. However, this dominance was short-lived and did not last long.
- He moved his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (called Devagiri then). This forced many people to travel over 1,000 km. Later, he moved the capital back to Delhi, causing great hardship and loss of life.
- He also introduced ‘token currency’, where cheap copper coins were used as money, like silver or gold coins.
Life in the Sultanate
- The life of sultans was luxurious and was marked by elaborate palaces, clothing, ornaments and rich food.
- Their wealth came from plundering, extracting taxes from common people, and the slave trade (selling enslaved people for labour).
- It was done not just to steal wealth (plunder), but also to break religious images and symbols (iconoclasm).
- Some sultans made non-Muslims pay a special tax called Jizya for protection and to be exempt from military service.
Timur Invasion
- Timur, a brutal Turkic-Mongol ruler from Central Asia, invaded North-West India and attacked Delhi at the end of the 14th century. He wanted to fight the “infidels” and plunder their wealth.
- His invasion caused huge destruction. Many people were killed or enslaved, and Delhi was left in ruins. After taking a large amount of treasure, Timur left India, leaving chaos behind.
- After Timur’s attack, the Lodis established the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
- But by then, the Sultanate had lost much of its land because of growing resistance from other Indian kingdoms.
Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate, during its rule, faced strong resistance from many parts of India. While it managed to control many kingdoms, some regions successfully fought back and remained independent. Some examples are discussed below
The Eastern Ganga Kingdom (Kalinga)
- The Eastern Ganga kingdom of Kalinga (which included present-day Odisha, and parts of Bengal and Andhra Pradesh) was never fully controlled by the Delhi Sultanate.
- In the mid-13th century, one of its most famous ruler was Narasimhadeva I. He was well-known for his military strength and cultural achievements.
- He successfully fought off many attacks from the Sultanate and even defeated the Sultanate’s Governor of Bengal.
- To celebrate his victories, Narasimhadeva I built the famous Sun Temple at Konark in present-day Odisha.
The Hoysalas of Southern India
- The Hoysala dynasty ruled parts of Southern India (mostly in present-day Karnataka) during the time of Delhi Sultanate.
- The Hoysalas defended themselves bravely and successfully stopped several attacks from the Delhi Sultanate.
- For some time, the Hoysala kingdom remained the only independent kingdom in the South.
- Over time, the Hoysalas grew weaker due to constant attacks and internal problems. In the mid-14th century, the Hoysala kingdom finally came to an end and became part of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Rebellions and Rise of New Sultanates
- During the Rebellions and the Rise of New Sultanates, the weakening of Delhi Sultanate’s authority led to widespread uprisings and the emergence of powerful regional kingdoms like the Bahmani Sultanate and the
- Vijayanagara Empire in the Deccan.
- Strong Sultanates also came up in Gujarat, Bengal and other regions.
- Some areas, like parts of Rajasthan, remained beyond the control of the Delhi Sultanate.
- In the 15th century, the Sultanate faced strong resistance from Rana5 Kumbha, the ruler of the Mewar kingdom. Rana Kumbha also successfully stopped invasions from these later Sultanates.
The Vijayanagara Empire
Rise of the Vijayanagara Empire
- The Rise of the Vijayanagara Empire began in the 14th century when two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, former Governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq rebelled against the Delhi Sultanate and established an independent kingdom in South India.
- This kingdom soon grew into a powerful empire, known as the Vijayanagara Empire, which became a major cultural and political force in the region.
- The Bahmani Sultanate, located north of the Vijayanagara Empire, was its main rival.
- During the Formation of the Deccan Sultanates, the Bahmani Sultanate eventually fragmented into five smaller independent kingdoms.
- These are Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar, marking the rise of the Deccan Sultanates in South-Central India.
Krishnadevaraya
- During the reign of Krishnadevaraya in the 16th century, the Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak.
- He expanded the empire and kept it powerful in the Deccan region.
- Under his leadership, the empire was strong in both military power and culture.
- Krishnadevaraya supported many poets and scholars writing in Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada.
- He wrote a famous Telugu poem called Amuktamalyada, which tells the story of the Tamil poet-saint Andal.
- One section of Krishnadevaraya’s writing is called Rajaniti (meaning ‘royal policy’), where he explained his thoughts on good governance.
- Krishnadevaraya gave money and support to many temples, including the famous Tirupati temple in
- Andhra Pradesh and the Vitthala temple in Vijayanagara.
- After winning many wars, Krishnadevaraya died in 1529 due to illness.
The Fall of the Vijayanagara Empire
- The Fall of the Vijayanagara Empire began in 1565, when the Deccan Sultanates united and defeated the
- Vijayanagara army, led by Ramaraya, Krishnadevaraya son-in-law at the Battle of Talikota.
- After this defeat, the empire broke into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas, who were former Military Governors.
- The Vijayanagara Empire officially ended in the mid-17th century.
The Mughals
Babur and the Foundation of the Mughal Empire
- Babur was a Turkic-Mongol ruler and a clever military strategist. He was thrown out of Samarkand (in present-day Uzbekistan), and he decided to come to India. He was a descendant of Timur, a famous conqueror.
- In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat.
- This battle was important because it used gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns, which were new weapons in Indian warfare at that time.
- This victory’ ended the Delhi Sultanate and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire, with Babur taking control of the Delhi throne.
Babur and India
- Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, wrote an autobiography called the Baburnama (Babur’s Memoirs’).
- Babur found India to be a “country of few charms”. He described Hindustan as large and wealthy, with “masses of gold and silver.”
- He also praised its wealth, healthy climate during the rainy season, and skilled artisans. These reasons led him to stay in India and build his empire instead of returning to Central Asia.
Humayun and the Rise of Sher Shah Suri
- Humayun became the ruler of the Mughal Empire after Babur’s death in 1530.
- Humayun found it difficult to hold the empire together.
- Taking advantage of this, Sher Shah Suri, a strong Afghan leader, took control of large parts of North India and started the Sur Empire.
- He introduced numerous important reforms that endured long after his rule.
- However, his empire was short-lived, and Humayun soon won back the territories he had lost.
Himu and the Return of the Mughals
- Before Humayun regained control, a skilled commander named Himu (or Hemu) rose to power. He was the Chief Minister (wazir) under one of the last Suri rulers.
- He captured Delhi and briefly ruled it using the royal name Hemchandra Vikramaditya.
- He had some military success, but during the Second Battle of Panipat, he was seriously injured while fighting against Akbar.
- Himu was captured and brought to Akbar, who then ordered him to be beheaded.
After this battle, Akbar reclaimed Delhi, and the Mughals firmly established their rule once again.
Akbar and the Growth of the Mughal Empire
- Akbar became emperor at the age of 13, after the accidental death of his father, Humayun.
- His rule was marked by a blend of ambition, strategy, brutality and tolerance.
- Akbar expanded the empire by conquering many regions.
- One famous battle was at Chittorgarh Fort in Rajasthan, which Akbar besieged for over five months.
- When Akbar’s army finally captured Chittorgarh Fort, hundreds of Rajput women, led by their queens and noblewomen, committed Jauhar to avoid being taken by the enemy.
- Jauhar was an ancient Rajput practice in which women, self-immolated to avoid capture, enslavement, and dishonour at the hands of invading armies after their men had died fighting in battle.
Akbar: From Conqueror to Wise Ruler
- Akbar started as a tough conqueror but later became a wise and tolerant king.
- To keep peace and build his empire strong, Akbar used smart political ideas. He married Rajput princesses and made friends with local rulers.
- He stopped the Jizya tax on non-Muslims. He promoted Sulh-i-Kul, meaning ‘peace with all,’ to respect all religions.
- Akbar expanded and -stabilised his empire by promoting interfaith dialogue, appointing Hindu officials to high positions, and introducing bold reforms, which helped him gain the support of several Rajput rulers.
- In his last 15 years, he fought wars in Kashmir, Sindh, the Deccan and Afghanistan.
- Even though Akbar couldn’t read or write, he loved learning. He invited scholars and thinkers to his court. He set up a House of Translation at Fatehpur Sikri, where important Sanskrit books were translated into Persian, like Mahabharata (called Razmnama), Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita and Panchatantra.
Akbar’s Legacy and His Successors
- Akbar’s son, Jahangir was his successor. He also loved art and architecture and worked to expand the empire in the Deccan.
- Jahangir’s son, Shah Jahan, is famous for building the Taj Mahal in Agra, one of the world’s greatest wonders.
- Under Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire experienced a golden age of art and architecture. He built the famous
- Red Forts in Delhi and Agra.
- Music, painting, and calligraphy also flourished during this time.
Aurangzeb – The Last Mughal Emperor
- Aurangzeb was the last powerful King in the Mughal Empire.
- When Emperor Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, he wanted his eldest son, Dara Shikoh, to become the next ruler.
- However, Dara’s younger brother, Aurangzeb, fought against him in a series of battles, defeated and executed him.
- Aurangzeb also removed his other two brothers, one was arrested and killed, and the other was forced into exile.
- To stop any future threats to his rule, Aurangzeb imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, in Agra Fort, where he remained until his death.
- In 1658, Aurangzeb crowned himself emperor, took the title ‘Alamgir’ (meaning ‘Conqueror of the World’), and ruled for nearly 49 years.
Military Campaigns and Expansion
- Aurangzeb led many campaigns, especially in the southern parts of India.
- Under his rule, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest size. However, his rule also faced many rebellions.
- He spent the last 25 years of his life fighting continuous wars in the Deccan. Maintaining large armies for these campaigns drained the empire’s treasury and heavily burdened the administration.
- Many historians believe this was one of the main reasons for the decline of Mughal power after his death in 1707.
Religious Beliefs and Policies
- Aurangzeb religious beliefs and policies are very rigid. He lived a simple and strict life, followed all Islamic rituals, and was very different from Akbar.
- He banned music and dance in his court because he thought they were un-Islamic.
- He also reimposed the Jizya tax on non-Muslims and a pilgrimage tax on Hindus, both of which had been removed earlier by Akbar.
- In 1669, he ordered all governors to destroy the temples and schools of other religions and to stop their teachings and practices.
- Many temples in Banaras (Varanasi), Mathura, and Somnath, along with Jain temples and Sikh gurudwaras, were destroyed.
- He also acted against Muslims of other sects, Sufi saints, and Zoroastrians (Parsis), who followed a different religion from Persia.
Resistance to the Mughals
- Many peasants and tribal groups rose against the Mughal rule because they were treated harshly.
- In the 17th century, the Jat peasants from Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Eastern Rajasthan killed a cruel Mughal officer.
- Other tribal groups like the Bhils, Gonds, Santhals, and Kochs also fought back when the Mughals tried to take their lands or collect heavy taxes.
- Some of these groups were defeated or joined the Mughal Empire, but those who lived in forests, hills, or far-away areas managed to keep some independence.
- Rani Durgavati was a brave and wise queen of the Garha kingdom, one of the Gond kingdoms in central India.
- In 1564, a general sent by Emperor Akbar attacked her kingdom. Although her army was smaller and had fewer weapons, Rani Durgavati did not give up. She led her soldiers herself and fought very bravely in the battle.
- During the fight, she was badly wounded. To avoid being captured by the enemy, she chose to take her own life on the battlefield. She was only 40 years old at that time.
Surge of the Rajputs
- The Rajputs lived in North-West India and were known for their bravery and strong traditions. They inherited this from earlier dynasties like the Pratiharas, who had once fought off Arab invasions of Sindh.
- After the Khilji conquest, they rebuilt their kingdoms. Two major Rajput clans rose in the regions of Mewar and Marwar.
- Among their bravest leaders were Rana Kumbha, Rana Sanga, and Maharana Pratap.
- Rana Sanga united several Rajput clans and won many battles against the Sultanates, although he was ultimately defeated by Babur in the Battle of Khanwa.
- Maharana Pratap ruled Mewar and refused to accept Mughal rule.
- In 1576, a major battle took place at the Haldighati Pass in the Aravalli hills between Maharana Pratap and the
- Mughal army. Although the Mughals had the upper hand, Maharana Pratap managed to escape.
- He continued to resist the Mughals for years using guerrilla warfare6 from the Aravalli Hills.
- The Bhils also joined his army as archers and helped with their knowledge about hilly terrain.
- Some Rajput states joined the Mughals through diplomacy and marriage. But Mewar did not accept Mughal rule.
- During Aurangzeb’s reign, many Rajput nobles rebelled. Durga Das Rathore of Marwar fought to protect Jodhpur’s freedom. Thus, Mughal control remained weak in Rajasthan.
The Ahoms
- The Ahom people came from present-day Myanmar in the 13th century. They settled in the Brahmaputra Valley and formed the Ahom kingdom there.
- During the Sultanate and Mughal periods, Ahom rulers strongly resisted outside attacks.
- The Ahoms followed a unique system called the paik system. Every able-bodied man had to give labour or military service to the state. In return, they received land rights.
- This system helped build public works and maintain a large army without keeping permanent soldiers.
The Ahoms slowly adopted local culture. They supported agriculture and encouraged different religions.
Battle with the Mughals
- In the 17th century, Aurangzeb sent Mughal forces to attack the Ahoms. The Mughals captured Garhgaon, the Ahom capital, for a short time.
- The Ahoms used their knowledge of forests, hills and rivers. They used guerrilla warfare to fight back.
- The Battle of Saraighat was fought in 1671 on the Brahmaputra river near present-day Guwahati.
- Ahom commander Lachit Borphukan led 10,000 soldiers. They defeated 30,000 Mughal soldiers in the battle.
- After this, the Ahoms were able to keep their independence.
The Rise of the Sikhs
- The rise of Sikhism began in the 15th century with the teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru.
- He preached the message of equality, unity of God, honesty, compassion, and service to humanity.
- His teachings attracted many followers and laid the foundation for a new religious movement in Punjab.
- Later, the Sikh Gurus had to face intolerance and persecution by some Mughal rulers.
- Emperor Jahangir discovered that Guru Arjan had supported his rebellious son. He ordered Guru Arjan to be tortured to death. After the death of Guru Arjan, his son Guru Hargobind became the next Sikh Guru.
Sikh Gurus Teachings
- Guru Arjan introduced martial training and formed a Sikh army. This army fought many battles against the Mughal forces.
- The sacred book, Gimt”6ranth Sahib, was first compiled by Guru Arjan.
- Guru Tegh Bahadur’s hymns were added later. It teaches that there is one God for all. It says God created the Earth as a home for Dharma.
- Sikhs are told to practise truthfulness, compassion, humility and self-control. For example, “Truth is high but higher still is truthful living.”
Guru Tegh Bahadur’s Martyrdom
- In 1675, some Kashmiri Pandits came to Guru Tegh Bahadur for help because they were facing religious persecution. The Guru choose to support them, even if it meant risking his life.
- He was arrested by Aurangzeb, who ordered him to convert to Islam.
- Even after torture and seeing his two disciples tortured, he refused to convert. He was publicly beheaded at Chandni Chowk, Delhi.
- His son, Guru Gobind Singh, became the 10th and last Sikh Guru. He formed the Khalsa, a martial brotherhood.
- The Khalsa stood for justice, equality, and protection of the faith. It fought many battles with the Mughal army.
Rise of the Sikh Empire
- Rise of the Sikh Empire Started after the decline of Mughal Empire.
- Sikh confederacies rose in Punjab region. They were later unified by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the early 19th century.
- He had strong military skills, diplomacy, and religious tolerance. He built a centralised Sikh Empire in the
- Northwest, including parts of Kashmir.
- This empire resisted the Mughals and later British expansion till the mid-19th century.
Administering India
- Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
- The administration of Delhi Sultanate was centralised, where the Sultan had complete authority.
- The Sultan was both the political and military head. His main duties were to defend Islamic territories from aggression, collect fees and taxes, and stay in touch with public matters and the condition of the people.
- The Sultan was assisted by a council of ministers who were in charge of different departments.
- An important administration was the Iqta system,
in which territories were given to nobles called Iqtadars. - Iqtadars collected taxes and sent the rest (after expenses) to the Sultan’s treasury. It was mainly needed to maintain the army.
- Taxes were also collected from trade, but the peasants had to bear the heaviest burden.
Some reports say that revenue collection was often very cruel for peasants.
The Mughal Administrative Framework
- The Mughal Administrative Framework included
- Diwan – in charge of finance.
- Mir Bakhshi – handled military matters.
- Khan-i-Saman – looked after public works, trade, industry, agriculture, and the royal household.
- Sadr – took care of justice, religion and education.
- These officers were posted in each of the 12 provinces (subahs) of the empire.
- Provinces were further subdivided, with strict rules to check the powers of each official.
- At the village level, old systems of self-rule continued as before.
The Mansabdari System
- Akbar also started the Mansabdari system. According to Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari, Mansabdars (officials) were given ranks (mansabs).
- They had to maintain a fixed number of elephants, horses, camels, and soldiers for the king.
- This system helped the Mughals to raise an army quickly without keeping a permanent army.
- The government held regular inspections to check if the Mansabdars followed the rules.
- They were paid by being given land (jagirs) and were also called Jagirdars.
Religion and Officials in Akbar’s Rule
- Although Akbar was tolerant of all religions, non-Muslims were kept in the minority in high government jobs.
- Usually, the number of non-Muslim officials was less than one-third of the total.
- Among Muslims, those of foreign origin were often preferred over Indian Muslims.
Todar Mai’s Revenue System
- Todar Mai, Akbar’s Finance Minister, introduced a very efficient revenue system.
- He conducted surveys to know crop types and market prices. Based on these, he fixed a fair price for each crop.
- He also started a systematic land survey of the entire empire.
- This helped increase revenue collection and made the Mughal administration stronger.
People’s Lives
Economy and Society
- Economy and Society from the 13th to the 17th century had strong despite changing rulers.
- The economy was based on agriculture, craft industries, and trade.
- Community systems like shrenis (guilds) and jatis (professional groups) supported the economy, and credit systems also helped business activities.
- India was one of the richest regions in the world during this time.
- During the Sultanate period, some roads, bridges, canals, and irrigation systems were built in North India.
- Coins were introduced in different metals and values.
- Mughals used rupaya (silver coin) and dam (copper coin) as currency.
Agriculture
- Agriculture was the main support of the economy. Rulers collected land tax, usually one-fifth of the produce, but sometimes even half.
- Better irrigation system helped grow more crops.
- Food crops included rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane and spices.
- Non-food crops included cotton, silk, wool, dyes, timber and jute.
- Agricultural output was different in different regions and times.
- Famines happened, and help depended on the ruler’s kindness.
Crafts and Industry
- Crafts and Industry were good at that time.
- Craft workers made clothes, weapons, tools, utensils, ornaments and jewellery.
- Ship-building grew during this period. It was needed for river and sea trade.
- Indian goods were sent from ports like Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam and Hooghly.
- India exported more than it imported. Imported goods included silk, horses, metals and luxury items.
- Traders from Arabia, Persia (now Iran) and Central Asia settled in Indian ports.
- The hundi system helped traders send money without carrying cash. A hundi was a written note to make payment and was an early form of banking. This system worked across regions and made trade safe.
- Merchant communities like the Marwaris became skilled in trade under different rulers.
- They created their own systems of credit and trust, separate from governments.
Life in Late 17th Century India
- In Late 17th century, India economic conditions became harder. Farmers had to pay heavy taxes and were left with very small share of their produce.
- Many farmers lost their land and became bonded labourers. Craft workers and labourers also suffered during this time.
- Wealth was mostly with kings, courtiers, top officials, and rich traders. Wars caused people to lose their homes and land.
- Some conflicts happened over destroyed or damaged religious places. But mostly, people of different religions lived together peacefully.
- They depended on each other for work and trade.
- India remained rich overall but faced political changes and challenges.
- There were hard times, but people showed strength and creativity. India survived through war and other challenges. Along with wars and challenges it showcased the growth of art, literature, spirituality and values.