Students can access the CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology with Solutions and marking scheme Set 1 will help students in understanding the difficulty level of the exam.
CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 Psychology Set 1 with Solutions
Time Allowed: 3 hours
Maximum Marks: 70
General Instructions:
- All questions are compulsory except where internal choice has been given.
- Question Nos. 1 -15 in Section A carry 1 mark each. You are expected to answer them as directed.
- Question Nos. 16-21 in Section B are very short answer type-I questions carrying 2 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 30 words.
- Question Nos. 22-24 in Section C are short answer type-II questions carrying 3 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 60 words.
- Question Nos. 25 – 28 in Section D are long answer type questions carrying 4 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 120 words.
- Question Nos. 29-30 in Section E are long answer type questions carrying 6 marks each. Answer to each question should not exceed 200 words.
- Question Nos. 31 – 34 in Section F are based on two cases given. Answer to each one-mark question should not exceed 20 words. Answer to each two-mark question should not exceed 30 words.
Section – A
Question 1.
Monika has to be assessed for her abilities of creativity and original thinking. The test to be used by the psychologist will involve the following: [1]
(A) Convergent thinking
(B) Divergent thinking
(C) Both convergent and divergent thinking
(D) Memory and logical thinking
Answer:
(B) Divergent thinking
Explanation:
Creative thinking refers to the originality and uniqueness of ideas and solutions that did not exist previously. Therefore, divergent thinking helps creative thinking to a construct new and original ideas.
Question 2.
Formal assessment is objective, standardized and organized. Based on this information, choose the statements which are true for formal assessment. [1]
(i) Formal assessment uses systematic testing procedures.
(ii) It is always open to subjective interpretations.
(iii) Based on the assessment, predictions about behaviour can be made.
(iv) It varies from case to case and from one assessor to another.
(A) ii, iii
(B) i, ii
(C) i,iii
(D) ii, iv
Answer:
(C) i,iii
Explanation:
Formal assessments are systematic, pre-planned test that assess student learning of a unit or a major concept. Based on the assessments, predictions about behavior can be made.
Question 3.
Anna’s application for admission to the college of her choice got rejected. When talking about the admission to the college with others, she tells everyone that she was never interested in studying in that college. Identify the defence mechanism used by Anna. [1]
(A) Repression
(B) Reaction formation
(C) Denial
(D) Rationalization
Answer:
(D) Rationalization
Explanation:
Rationalization involves explaining an unacceptable behavior of feeling in a rational or logical way. It is to avoid the true explanation.
Question 4.
………… is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. [1]
(A) Positive reaction
(B) Coping
(C) Conflict resolution
(D) Meditation
Answer:
(B) Coping
Explanation:
Coping is a dynamic situation specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations that are intended to resolve the problem and reduces stress.
Question 5.
Ritik uses imagery and imagination to reduce his stress levels. [1]
Identify the technique being used by Ritik.
(A) Relaxed visualization
(B) Meditation
(C) Creative visualization
(D) Imagination and relaxation
Answer:
(C) Creative visualization
Explanation:
Creative visualization is a specific way of using imagination. It is a cognitive process that consists of forming vivid mental images. It has been used to manage anxiety and sadness, as well as improve self-confidence.
Question 6.
In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read the statements and choose the correct option. [1]
Assertion (A): Psychological Stress is the stress that we generate for ourselves in our minds.
Reason (R): These psychological stresses do not have any impact on our physiological being.
Options:
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(B) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true but R is false.
(D) A is false but R is true
Answer:
(C) A is true but R is false.
Explanation:
It is true that psychological stress is the stress that we generate for ourselves in our minds. But it is not true that these psychological stresses do not have any impact on our physiological being. When the human body is placed under physical or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism, and physical activity.
Question 7.
While passing through the streets on her way to the office every day, Jaya feels people are spying on her and the police are chasing her. Identify the type of delusion Jaya is experiencing.
(A) Persecution
(B) Control
(C) Reference
(D) Grandeur
Answer:
(A) Persecution
Explanation:
People with this type of delusional disorder believe someone or something is mistreating, spying on, or attempting to harm them.
Question 8.
Sonali spends hours reading about her favourite actor. She is preoccupied with thinking and researching about him and when asked to study she gets violent. To diagnose her disorder, a clinical psychologist would need to know: [1]
(A) The number of hours she spends studying about the actor each day.
(B) The percentage of the population sharing her interest in the actor.
(C) Whether friends and family members share her interest in the actor.
(D) Whether she is dysfunctional and showing signs of distress.
Answer:
(D) Whether she is dysfunctional and showing signs of distress.
Explanation:
A clinical psychologist would need to know whether she is dysfunctional and showing signs of distress because it might be possible that she was going through some stressful situation. By knowing about her current feelings and emotions, psychologist would be able to change her behaviour in a right direction.
Question 9.
Which of the following statements are true about the diathesis stress model? [1]
(i) A vulnerability factor and the presence of a pathogenic stressor results in psychological disorder.
(ii) The presence of biological aberration is enough to develop a psychological disorder.
(iii) The presence of only pathogenic stressor may lead to psychopathology.
(iv) The diathesis and the stressor lead to the development of a psychological disorder.
(A) i and ii
(B) ii and iii
(C) iii and iv
(D) i and iv
Answer:
(D) i and iv
Explanation:
The diathesis may carry a vulnerability as well as the presence of a pathogenic stressor results in the development of psychological disorder.
Point (iii) is invalid because it shows the presence of only Pathogenic stressors that may lead to psychopathology, which is incorrect. But, the presence of some biological disorder (which may be inherited) is also present as one of the component.
Question 10.
Harpreet’s mother ignores her when she throws tantrums if asked to keep her room tidy. However, she appreciates Harpreet when she arranges her toys after playtime. The method being used is ………… [1]
(A) positive reinforcement
(B) negative reinforcement
(C) differential reinforcement
(D) modelling
Answer:
(C) differential reinforcement
Explanation:
Differential reinforcement with positive and negative reinforcement are used together. By using this method, unwanted behaviour can be reduced and wanted behaviour can be increased simultaneously.
Question 11.
The centrality of an attitude reflects: [1]
(A) A person’s degree of negative or positive feelings about an object.
(B) Whether an attitude is negative or negative towards an attitude object.
(C) The extent to which an attitude would influence the other attitudes in the system.
(D) The attitude’s resistance to change.
Answer:
(C) The extent to which an attitude would influence the other attitudes in the system.
Explanation:
An attitude with greater centrality would influence the other attitudes in the system much more than non-central attitudes.
Question 12.
Sachin believes that one should always speak the truth. This is an example of: [1]
(A) Belief
(B) Cognition
(C) Value
(D) Stereotype
Answer:
(C) Value
Explanation:
Values are formed when a particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of the person’s outlook on life. Values contain a ‘should, or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or ethical issues.
Question 13.
In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read the statements and choose the correct option. [1]
Assertion (A): According to Balance theory, two elements of an attitude system must be in the same direction.
Reason (R): An attitude system requires logical consistency else it will lead to ‘mental discomfort’.
Options:
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(B) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true but R is false.
(D) A is false but R is true
Answer:
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
Explanation:
According to the balance theory of attitude, Cognitive consistency means that components aspects or elements of the attitude or the attitude system must be in the same direction to experience psychological comfort. If this does not happen, the person experiences psychological discomfort. This leads to some change in the attitude system to attain logical consistency.
Question 14.
A collection of people present at a place by chance is a ………….. [1]
(A) team
(B) audience
(C) mob
(D) crowd
Answer:
(D) crowd
Explanation:
A crowd is a collection of people who may be present at a place or a situation by chance. Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational, and there is no interdependence among members.
Question 15.
Which of the following is not a feature of a formal group? [1]
(A) Functions are stated explicitly and formally.
(B) Formation is based on rules and laws.
(C) There is a close relationship among members.
(D) Members have definite roles.
Answer:
(C) There is a close relationship among members.
Explanation:
The formation of formal groups is based on some specific rules or laws and members have definite rules. There are a set of norms which help in establishing order. The formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws, and there is close relationship among members.
Section – B
Question 16.
How did Charles Spearman explain the concept of intelligence? [2]
OR
State the importance of Emotional Intelligence.
Answer:
Charles Spearman proposed the two factor theory. He said that intelligence consists of a general factor
(g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors).
(Brief explanation of the two factors)
OR
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that helps in accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions.
They encourage cooperative behavior and reduce antisocial activities. (or any other relevant explanation)
Detailed Answer:
Charles Spearmen proposed Two-factor theory of intelligence in 1927. According to him intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors, namely
(a) The general ability known as G-factor and
(b) The specific abilities known as S-factors.
The performance by the individual is determined by the G-factor and the S-factors.
The total intelligence of the individual is the sum total of the G-factor and the S-factors.
The performance of a particular task depends on the ‘G’-factor or general ability and the ‘S’ factor or specific ability.
For instance, Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor but they should have specific abilities which allow them to excel in their respective domains.
Characteristics of ‘G’ factor:
(i) It is universal inborn ability.
(ii) It is general mental energy.
(iii) It is constant
(iv) The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual.
(v) It is used in every activity of life.
(vi) Greater the’g’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.
Characteristics of ‘S’ factor:
(i) It is learned and acquired in the environment.
(ii) It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
(iii) Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.
Emotional Intelligence:
Emotional Intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence. According to Salovey and Mayer, emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.
Emotional quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ is used to express intelligence.
Emotional intelligence refers to “the ability to process emotional information accurately and efficiently.
Importance of Emotional Intelligence:
(i) It improves the academic performance.
(ii) It is very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the classroom.
(iii) They encourage cooperative behaviuor and reduce anti-social activities.
Question 17.
The phenomena of student-teacher interaction in a classroom can be easily studied by psychologists. Critically evaluate the assessment method that will be used here. [2]
Answer:
Observation method:
It involves employing systematic, organized, and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time, lmk
Limitation: Observer has little control over the situation and the reports may suffer from subjective interpretations.
Question 18.
‘Self-esteem shows a strong relationship with our everyday behaviour’.
Justify this statement with the help of an example. [2]
Answer:
Children with high academic self-esteem perform better in schools than those with low academic ones. High social self-esteem students are liked by their peers.
Children with low self-esteem are found to display anxiety, depression and increase in anti-social behaviour.
Detailed Answer:
The value judgment of a person about herself/himself is called Self-esteem. It shows about a strong relationship with our everyday behaviour.
For e.g., Children With high academic self-esteem perform better in schools than those with low academic self-esteem and children with high social self-esteem are more liked by their peers. On the other hand, children with low self-esteem often found to display anxiety, depression and increasing anti-social behaviour.
Question 19.
Ramesh is admitted to a rehabilitation centre for alcohol addiction. His treatment includes giving him a mild electric shock every time he is made to smell the alcohol. Name and describe the therapy being used. [2]
Answer:
Ramesh is being treated using Aversive conditioning.
It refers to repeated association of undesired response with an aversive consequence. With repeated pairings of the image of the drug and the pain of the shock, the drug becomes aversive as the pain of the shock is associated with it and the person will give up the drug.
Question 20.
Imagine the following situation:
‘You auditioned for the school play but did not get selected’.
Using Ellis’ framework, suggest two contrasting interpretations and their consequences. [2]
Answer:
Interpretation!
Antecedent-Belief -Consequence
I was not selected- 1 am not good enough-sadness
Interpretation 2
Antecedent-Belief-Consequence
I was not selected-I must spend more time practicing my acting-Determination to improve Any similar contrasting examples.
Question 21.
Ivaan never paid heed to his mother’s advice of doing physical exercise daily in the morning. But one day when he saw his favourite cricketer advocating the importance of regular exercise, he started exercising daily. Identify the characteristics of the source that brought about the attitude change. [2]
Answer:
Attractiveness and credibility. Popularity of the cricketer and he being a credible source for Shantanu (the target).
Detailed Answer.
Source credibility and Attractiveness are two features that affect attitude change. Attitudes are more likely to change when the message comes from a highly credible source, rather than from a low credible source. For example, in the above case, the popularity of the cricketer becomes a credible source for Shantanu, so he started doing exercise regularly.
Section – C
Question 22.
Shamin is a spiritual leader who possesses a particular type of intelligence as explained by Howard Gardner. Identify the intelligence and give reasons for your answer. [3]
OR
Zarin is high in the ability to think analytically and performs well in academics. With respect to Sternberg’s theory, which type of intelligence does Zarin possess? Explain this type of intelligence.
Answer:
Intrapersonal intelligence- an ability to understand one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This is because Shamin has the knowledge of his internal strengths and limitations and uses that knowledge to effectively relate to others. Such people are high in this ability and have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human existence, and meaning of life.
OR
Zarin possesses componential or analytical intelligence. It is the analysis of information to solve problems.
This intelligence has three components:
(i) Knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing things.
(ii) Meta or a higher order component, which involves planning concerning what to do and how to do.
(iii) Performance component, which involves actually doing things.
Question 23.
Describe Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome. [3]
Answer:
Gives importance to physiological factors in stress GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion (explanation of all three)
Detailed Answer:
According to Hans Selye, stress refers to non-specific bodily reactions. He believed that stresses may be many but responses are only physiological reactions. Selye is known as ‘father of modern stress researches.’
Selye studied the issue of prolonged stress by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays, and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time.
He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
According to him, GAS involves three stages:
(i) Alarm reaction Stage: The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the adrenal pituitary-cortex system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight or flight. For e.g., you would be choosing the ‘fight’ response if you heard gunshots on a city street and confronted the shooter.
(ii) ResistanceStage: Ifstress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The parasympathetic nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through confrontation. For e.g., death of a loved one, divorce, losing a job, and moving.
(iii) Exhaustion Stage: Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely. For e.g., your mother told you that you are going to take the SAT next month.
CRITICISMS OF GAS:
(i) A very limited role is assigned to psychological factors in stress.
(ii) Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress. ‘
(iii) How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions, personalities, and biological constitutions.
Question 24.
The classification of psychological disorders is important. Justify the statement and explain the two classification schemes. [3]
Answer:
Classifications are useful because they enable psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers –
(i) to communicate with each other about the disorder
(ii) to help in understanding the causes
(iii) to know the processes involved in their development and maintenance.
DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual- The American Psychiatric Association (APA) classifies various kinds of psychological disorders on the basis of discrete clinical criteria which indicate the presence or absence of disorders.
ICD-International Classification of Behavioural and Mental Disorders prepared by WHO
For each disorder, a description of the main clinical features or symptoms, and of other associated features including diagnostic guidelines is provided in this scheme.
Detailed Answer:
Psychological disorders are diagnosed based on two classifications, i.e., DSM-V and ICD-10.
A classification of disorders consists of a list of categories of specific psychological disorders grouped into various classes based on some shared characteristics.
Classifications are useful because they
(1) enable users like psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers to communicate with each other about the disorder and
(2) help in understanding the causes of psychological disorders and the processes involved in their development and maintenance.
Two classification schemes are:
(i) The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has published an official manual describing and classifying various kinds of psychological disorders. The current version of it, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5), presents discrete clinical criteria which indicate the presence or absence of disorders.
(ii) The classification scheme officially used in India and elsewhere is the tenth revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which is known as the ICD-10 Classification of Behavioural and Mental Disorders. It was prepared by the World Health Organisation (WHO).
Section – D
Question 25.
Kyna and Kyra are identical twins. They were separated early in childhood. Will they show similarities in their intellectual characteristics? Give reasons for your answer. [4]
Answer:
Explain with reference to Kyna & Kyra
The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins and adopted children. The intelligence of identical twins reared together correlates almost 0.90. The intelligence of identical twins reared in different environments correlated 0.72.
Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
Question 26.
Danish is trying to lose weight. During the festivities, he made sure not to eat his favourite desserts. Identify and explain the aspect of self that Nariman is exhibiting. Suggest some of the techniques he can apply to further achieve his goal. [4]
Answer:
Danish is exhibiting Self-control/Self-regulation. Learning to delay or defer the gratification of needs. (1)
A number of psychological techniques of self control have also been suggested.
(a) Observation of one’s own behaviour is one of them. This provides us with the necessary information that may be used to change, modify, or strengthen certain aspects of self.
(b) Self-instruction is another important technique. We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave as we want. Such instructions are quite effective in self-regulation.
(c) Self-Reinforcement is the third technique. This involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes.
Question 27.
Describe the importance of the therapeutic relationship in the process of psychotherapy. [4]
Answer:
(i) The special relationship between the client and the therapist.
(ii) It is a permanent and lasting relationship.
(iii) Two major components- contractual nature; limited duration of the therapy.
(iv) Trusting and confiding relationship. The therapist encourages this by being accepting, empathic, genuine and warm to the client; s/he is not judging the client even if the client is rude or confides all the ‘wrong’ things. This is the unconditional positive regard which the therapist has for the client.
(v) The therapist has empathy for the client understanding things from the other person’s perspective. Empathy enriches the therapeutic relationship and transforms it into a healing relationship.
(vi) The therapeutic alliance also requires that the therapist must keep strict confidentiality. The therapist must not exploit the trust and the confidence of the client.
(vii) Finally, it is a professional relationship, and must remain so.
Question 28.
Four friends are working together to develop a plan for their new start-up. After some initial conflict, the group started to work together and became unified. Now the group is very productive and the group goal is in the process of being achieved. Identify the stage of group formation that the group has presently reached. Explain the stages that the group has passed through to reach the present stage. [4]
OR
A group of 20 students was asked to complete the task of decorating the classroom boards. However, it was brought to the notice of the teacher that not everyone was participating and putting in effort. Identify and explain the phenomenon being described above and give reasons why this occurs.
Answer:
The group is in the performing stage of group formation.
The group has passed through Tuckman’s developmental sequences. These are forming, storming, norming, performing and if the group disbands then adjourning. (Brief explanation of the stages)
OR
Social loafing. A participant puts in less effort as the group size increases.
(i) Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed and therefore exert less effort.
(ii) Motivation of members decreases because they realize that their contributions will not be evaluated on an individual basis.
(iii) The performance of the group is not to be compared with other groups.
(iv) There is improper coordination (or no coordination) among members.
(v) Belonging to the same group is not important for members. It is only an aggregate of individuals.
Detailed Answer:
The group is in the performing stage of group formation.
The group has passed through Tuckman’s developmental sequences. These are:
(i) FORMING: When group members meet for first time, a kind of uncertainty is created for achieving group goals. People try to know each other and assess whether they will fit in or not. There is excitement as well as apprehensions. This stage is called the forming stage.
(ii) STORMING: After forming stage, there is a stage of intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming.
In this stage, there is conflict among members about target, process, performance, and control and resources. When this stage is complete, some sort of hierarchy of leadership in the group develops.
(iii) NORMING: the storming stage is followed by another stage known as Norming. Group members by this develop norms related to group behaviour. This leads to development of a positive group identity.
(iv) PERFORMING: By this stage, the structure of the group has evolved and is accepted by group members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some groups, this may be the last stage of group development.
(v) ADJOURNING: In this stage, once the function is over, the group may be disbanded. However, all groups do not always proceed from one stage to the next in the same manner.
OR
The Phenomenon is Social Loafing.
Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task, i.e., one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free rider.
This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by Latane and his associates who asked group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in knowing how much noise people make in social settings.
The results of the study showed that although the total amount of noise rose up, as size increased, the amount of noise produced by each participant dropped.
Some reasons for the occurring of social loafing are:
(i) Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed and therefore exert less effort.
(ii) Motivation of members decreases because they realise that their contributions will not be evaluated on individual basis.
(iii) The performance of the group is not to be compared with other groups.
(iv) There is an improper coordination (or no coordination) among members.
(v) Belonging to the same group is not important for members. It is only an aggregate of individuals.
Section – E
Question 29.
Differentiate between type and trait approaches to personality. Explain any four type theories in detail. [6]
OR
Describe the humanistic approach to personality. What did Maslow mean by self-actualization?
Answer:
Type: The type approach attempts to comprehend human personality by examining certain broad patterns in the observed behavioural characteristics of individuals. In contrast, the trait approach focuses on the specific psychological attributes along which individuals tend to differ in consistent and stable ways.
Type Approaches:
(a) Hippocrates
(b) Charak Samhita- Tridosha and trigunas
(c) Sheldon- body type
(d) Jung- Introverts and Extroverts
(e) Friedman and Rosenman- Type A and B; Morris Type C and D
Explanation of any four in detail
OR
Humanistic theories emphasize on personal responsibility and innate tendencies towards personal growth.
(i) Humanbeingsarefullyfunctioningpsychologically healthy persons who live life to the fullest; live in the here and now.
(ii) Rogers spoke of discrepancy between real self and ideal self -maladjustment and adjustment.
(iii) Rogers proposed two basic assumptions: (a)
Humans are goal-directed and worthwhile; (b)
People choose adaptive and self-actualizing behavior.
(iv) All human beings need unconditional positive regard, freedom of choice and feeling of fulfilment for attainment of self-actualization.
(v) Maslow’s Self-Actualization- a state where people have reached their own fullest potential. According to him, human beings are free to shape their lives and to self-actualize.
Detailed Answer:
Distinction between Type and Trait theories of personality:
Type approaches:
Type approaches attempts to comprehend human personality by examining certain broad patterns in the observed behavioral characteristics of individuals. Each behavioral pattern refers to one type in which individuals are placed in terms of the similarity of their behavioral characteristics with that pattern.
Trait approach:
Trait approaches focuses on the specific psychological attributes along with individuals tend to differ in consistent and stable ways, for example.
One person may be less shy, whereas another maybe more or one person may be less friendly, whereas another maybe more. Here, shyness and unfriendliness represent rates along which individuals can be rated in terms of the degree of presence or absence of the concerned behavioral quality or a trait.
Four Type approaches are as follows:
(A) The Greek physician Hippocrates had proposed a typology of personality based on fluid or humour. He classified people into four types i.e., sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric; each characterised by specific behavioural features.
(B) The personality types given by William Sheldon are:
(i) Endomorphic: The Endomorphs are fat, soft, and round. By temperament, they are relaxed and sociable.
(ii) Mesomorphic: The Mesomorphs have strong musculature, are rectangular with a strong body build. They are energetic and courageous.
(iii) Ectomorphic: The ectomorphs are thin, long, and fragile in body build. They are brainy, artistic, and introvert.
(C) Carl Jung has proposed another important typology by grouping people into introverts and extraverts. According to this typology, introverts are people who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw themselves in the face of emotional conflicts and are shy. Extraverts, on the other hand, are sociable, outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow dealing directly with people and react to stress by trying to lose themselves among people and social activity.
(D) Friedman and Rosenman have classified individuals into Type-A and Type-B personality.
People characterised by Type-A personality seem to possess high motivation, lack patience, feel short of time, be in a great hurry, and feel like being always burdened with work.
Such people find it difficult to slow down and relax. They are more susceptible to problems like hypertension and coronary heart disease (CHD).
The risk of developing CHD with Type-A personality is greater than the risks caused by high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels or smoking.
People characterised by Type-B personality seem to be relaxed, patient, and easy-going nature. They work steadily, enjoying achievements, but do not tend to become stress when goals are not achieved.
Morris have suggested a Type-C personality, which is prone to cancer. Individuals characterised by this personality are cooperative, unassertive, and patient. People supress their negative emotions, e.g., anger and show compliance to authority.
Type-D personality has been introduced recently which is characterised by proneness to depression.
OR
Humanistic theories emphasise personal responsibility and innovate tendencies toward personal growth, importance of people, subjective attitudes, feelings, and beliefs, especially about the self. The humanistic theories are developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
CARL-ROGER’S APPROACH TO PERSONALITY
(i) The most important idea proposed by Rogers is that of a fully functioning person.
(ii) He believes that fulfilment is a motivating force for personality development.
(iii) People tried to express their capabilities, potentials, and talents to the fullest extent possible.
(iv) Rogers makes 2 basic assumptions about human behaviour:
(1) Behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile.
(2) People will always choose adaptive, self actualising behaviour.
(v) Rogers also suggests that each person has a concept of ideal self and real self.
(1) IDEAL SELF: The ideal self is the person that you would like to be.
(2) REAL SELF: The real self is the person you are. The correspondence between the ideal and the real self makes person happy whereas any discrepancy between both results in unhappiness and dissatisfaction.
(i) Roger’s basic principle is that people tend to maximise Self-Concept through Self-actualisation. In this process, the self grows, expands, and becomes more social.
(ii) When social conditions are positive, the self-concept and the self-esteem are high. In contrast, when the conditions are negative, the self-concept and self- esteem are low. People with high self-concept and self-esteem are flexible and open to new experiences, so that they can continue to grow and self-actualise.
(iii) Rogers developed CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY which shows that an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard must be created in order to ensure enhancement of people’s self-concept.
MASLOW’S APPROACH TO PERSONALITY:
(i) Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person’s potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
(ii) According to him, the need of self-actualization can only be met once all the other needs are satisfied.
Question 30.
All of us go through anxiety at some point in our lives. At what stage does anxiety become a disorder? Explain its types. [6]
OR
Describe the different psychological models used to explain mental disorders.
Answer:
Anxiety is usually defined as a diffuse, vague, very uhpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension.
High levels of anxiety that are distressing and interfere with effective functioning indicate the presence of an anxiety- disorder.
Types:
(i) Generalized Anxiety Disorder
(ii) Panic Disorder
(iii) Phobia
(iv) SAD
OR
The psychological models include:
The Psychodynamic model -forces within the person not consciously aware, determine behaviour; three central forces that are dynamic; instinctual needs, drives and impulses (id), rational thinking (ego), and moral standards (superego).
The Behavioural Model-learning maladaptive ways of behaving. Learned through conditioning; what has been learned can be unlearned.
The Cognitive Model: Irrational beliefs, think in illogical ways and make over generalisations.
The Humanistic-existential model- natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative and constructive, driven to self-actualize.
Existentialists give meaning to our existence or to avoid that responsibility.
Detailed Answer:
Anxiety is usually defined as a diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension.
High levels of anxiety that are distressing and interfere with effective functioning indicate the presence of an anxiety disorder.
There are many types of anxiety disorders:
(i) Generalised anxiety disorder:
- It consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained, and intense fears that are not attached to any object.
- The symptoms include worry and apprehensive feelings about the future; hyper-vigilance, which involves constantly scanning the environment for dangers.
- It is marked by motor tension, as a result of which the person is unable to relax, is restless, and visibly shaky and tense.
(ii) Panic disorder:
- It consists of recurrent anxiety attacks in which the person experiences intense terror.
- A panic attack denotes an abrupt surge of intense anxiety rising to a peak when thoughts of a particular stimuli are present. Such thoughts occur in an unpredictable manner.
- The clinical features include shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling, palpitations, choking, nausea, chest pain or discomfort, fear of going crazy, losing control, or dying.
(iii) Phobias:
- People who have phobias have irrational fears related to specific objects, people, or situations.
- Phobias often develop gradually or begin with a generalised anxiety disorder.
- Phobias can be grouped into three main types, i.e., specific phobias, social phobias, and agoraphobia.
- Specific phobias are the most commonly occurring type of phobia. This group includes irrational fears such as intense fear of a certain type of animal, or of being in an enclosed space.
- Intense and incapacitating fear and embarrassment when dealing with others characterises social anxiety disorder (social phobia).
- Agoraphobia is the term used when people develop a fear of entering unfamiliar situations.
- Many people with agoraphobia are afraid of leaving their home. So, their ability to carry out normal life activities is severely limited.
(iv) Separation anxiety disorder (SAD):
- Individuals with separation anxiety disorder are fearful and anxious about separation from attachment figures to an extent that is developmentally not appropriate.
- Children with SAD may have difficulty being in a room by themselves, going to school alone, are fearful of entering new situations, and cling to and shadow their parents’ every move. To avoid separation, children with SAD may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums, or make suicidal gestures.
OR
The psychological • models include the psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, and humanistic-existential models.
(i) Psychodynamic model:
- Psychodynamic theorists believe that behaviour, whether normal or abnormal, is determined by psychological forces within the person of which s/he is not consciously aware.
- These internal forces are considered dynamic, i.e., they interact with one another and their interaction gives shape to behaviour, thoughts, and emotions.
- Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts between these forces.
- This model was first formulated by Freud who believed that three central forces shape personality — instinctual needs, drives and impulses (id), rational thinking (ego), and moral standards (superego). Freud stated that abnormal behaviour is a symbolic expression of unconscious mental conflicts that can be generally traced to early childhood or infancy.
(ii) Behavioural model:
- This model states that both normal and abnormal behaviours are learned and psychological disorders are the result of learning maladaptive ways of behaving.
- The model concentrates on behaviours that are learned through conditioning.
- Learning can take place by classical conditioning (temporal association in which two events repeatedly occur close together in time), operant conditioning (behaviouris followed by a reward), and social learning (learning by imitating others’ behaviour).
- These three types of conditioning account for behaviour, whether adaptive or maladaptive.
(iii) Cognitive model:
- According to this model, People may hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves that are irrational and inaccurate.
- People may also repeatedly think in illogical ways and make overgeneralisations, that is, they may draw broad, negative conclusions based on a single insignificant event.
(iv) Humanistic-existential model:
- Humanists believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative, and constructive, and are driven to self-actualize, i.e., to fulfil this potential for goodness and growth.
- Existentialists believe that from birth we have total freedom to give meaning to our existence or to avoid that responsibility. Those who shirk from this responsibility would live empty, inauthentic, and dysfunctional lives.
(v) Socio-cultural model:
- According to the socio-cultural model, abnormal behaviour is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual.
- As behaviour is shaped by societal forces, factors such as family structure and communication, social networks, societal conditions, and societal labels and roles become more important.
- Socio-cultural theorists believe that abnormal functioning is influenced by the societal labels and roles assigned to troubled people.
- When people break the norms of their society, they are called deviant and ‘mentally ill’. Such labels tend to stick so that the person may be viewed as ‘crazy’ and encouraged to act sick. The person gradually learns to accept and play the sick role, and functions in a disturbed manner.
(vi) Diathesis-stress model:
- This model states that psychological disorders develop when a diathesis (biological predisposition to the disorder) is set off by a stressful situation.
- This model has three components:
- The first is the diathesis or the presence of some biological aberration which may be inherited.
- The second component is that the diathesis may carry a vulnerability to develop a psychological disorder. This means that the person is ‘at risk’ or ‘predisposed’ to develop the disorder.
- The third component is the presence of pathogenic stressors, i.e., factors/ stressors that may lead to psychopathology. If such “at risk” persons are exposed to these stressors, their predisposition may evolve into a disorder.
- This model has been applied to several disorders including anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia.
Section – F
Read the case and answer the questions that follow:
‘My story about work-related stress’
Looking back on my life, I recognize that I have always struggled with anxiety. In relationships, friendships or at work.
However, I misunderstood those feelings for a long time, thinking that my hyper vigilance was a positive thing which made me more productive and in-tune with others. I remember a badge I bought for myself in my early 20s which I had on my desk at work. It said “I thrive on stress. Please hassle me.”
I was always on the go, feeling like I had an edge that motivated me. The truth was that I felt anxious almost all the time.
I worked in the same organization for over 20 years. I loved managing my small team of staff and felt that I thrived on the stress of work. I was in a job which I perceived to be rewarding and stressful in equal measure. I was the problem solver, the one to volunteer for any task. I worked extra hours and felt a great sense of responsibility in my role.
However, in early 2012, 1 began to struggle to manage the stress of my job. Thoughts and worries about work seeped into every part of my life. I would wake up at night with palpitations, worrying about a task I had not completed, or trying to remember if I had sent an urgent email. I found that my mind wandered to work whilst I was spending time with my family. I withdrew from friends as I didn’t have the head space to switch off and relax.
Question 31.
“I thrive on stress. Please hassle me.” Explain the type of stress being referred to here. [1]
Answer:
Eustress: Eustress is the term used to describe the level of stress that is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for achieving peak performance and managing minor crises.
Question 32.
“Thoughts and worries about work seeped into every part of my life. I would wake up at night with palpitations, worrying about a task I had not completed, or trying to remember if I had sent an urgent email. I found that my mind wandered to work whilst I was spending time with my family.” Suggest and explain two stress management techniques that the writer could use. [2]
Answer:
(Explanation of any two of the following)
(i) Relaxation Techniques
(ii) Meditation Procedures
(iii) Biofeedback
(iv) Creative Visualization
(v) Cognitive Behavioural Techniques
(vi) Exercise
Detailed Answer:
Two stress management techniques are:
(i) Relaxation Techniques:
- It is an active skill that reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of illnesses such as high blood pressure and heart disease.
- Usually, relaxation starts from the lower part of the body and progresses up to the facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed.
- Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the body.
(ii) Meditation Procedures:
- The yogic method of meditation consists of a sequence of learned techniques for refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.
- It involves such a thorough concentration that the meditator. becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness.
Read the case and answer the questions that follow:
The Pygmalion effect, or Rosenthal effect, is a psychological phenomenon in which high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area. The hypothesis was that expectations can influence performance. Robert Rosenthal chose an elementary school in California for his study and having tested all the children’s IQ, the researchers selected a sample of children at random. He informed the teachers that these were children of high academic potential. Following the test, the teachers were given the names of the ‘intellectual bloomers,’ but no scores were disclosed. At the end of the school year, all the students retook the test. While the overall scores had risen, the so called ‘intellectual bloomers’ had improved the most because of the teachers’ efforts and the attention they got from them. The evidence seemed to indicate that the teachers’ expectations had an impact on the student outcomes, especially in the younger students. A similar process works in the opposite direction in the case of low expectations. The idea of the Pygmalion effect can be applied in many situations. Our beliefs about others can lead us to treat them in such a way that they subsequently start behaving in accordance with our beliefs.
Question 33.
Identify and explain the source of prejudice which leads students to perform poorly. [1]
Answer:
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy-Brief explanation
The target group may behave in ways that justify the prejudice.
Detailed Answer:
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:
The group that is the target of prejudice is itself responsible for continuing the prejudice. The target group may behave in ways that justify the prejudice, that is, confirm the negative expectations.
Question 34.
Explain the cognitive and behavioural components of the teachers’ attitude towards the ‘intellectual bloomers’ in the Rosenthal study. [2]
Answer:
Cognitive component- Teachers’ expectations and belief that the students are highly intelligent and can understand easily.
Behavioural components- the teachers’ attention and effort
Detailed Answer:
The thought component is referred to as the Cognitive component.
The Teachers’ expectations and beliefs about the students being intelligent and can understand easily is the cognitive component towards the ‘intellectual bloomers’ in the Rosenthal study.
The tendency to act is called the Behavioural (or conative) aspect.
The teachers’ attention and effort towards the students is the behavioural component towards the ‘intellectual bloomers’ in the study.